Philosophy
of history, is the study either of the historical process and its
development or of the methods used by historians to understand their material.
The term history may
be employed in two quite different senses, it may mean the events and actions that together make up
the human past, or it may mean the accounts given of that past and the modes of
investigation whereby they are arrived at or constructed. When used in the
first sense, the word refers to what as a matter of fact happened, while when used in the second sense it refers to the study and
description of those happenings.
The notion of philosophical
reflection upon history and its nature is consequently open to more than one interpretation,
and modern writers have found it convenient to regard it as covering two main
types of undertaking. On the one hand, they have distinguished philosophy of
history in the traditional or classical sense; this is conceived to be a
first-order enquiry, its subject matter being the historical process as a whole
and its aim being, broadly speaking, one of providing an overall elucidation or explanation of the course and direction taken by that process. On
the other hand, they have distinguished philosophy of history considered as a
second-order enquiry. Here attention is focused not upon the actual sequence of
events themselves but, instead, upon the procedures and categories used by
practicing historians in approaching and comprehending their material. The
former, often alluded to as speculative philosophy of history, has had a long
and varied career; the latter, which is generally known as critical or
analytical philosophy of history, did not rise to prominence until the 20th
century.
Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel was a German philosopher, and a major figure in German
Idealism. His historicist and idealist account of reality revolutionized
European philosophy and was an important precursor to Continental philosophy
and Marxism. Born: August
27, 1770, Stuttgart,
Germany
Spirit -
This is the central concept in Hegel's method of philosophic history. The
concept of Spirit unifies the three concepts of freedom, Reason, and self-
consciousness, which are interdependent almost to the point of identity.
Freedom is simply total self-sufficiency, and self-consciousness is absolutely
necessary to the sense of freedom Hegel is getting at. Universal Reason is the
only true context for this true freedom, because only Reason is truly self-
sufficient--it doesn't depend on anything but itself.. Specifically, Spirit
unfolds in a series of stages (each of which is a unique spirit of a historical
people, embodied in a State), The only interest of Spirit is to realize its own
principle of true freedom, and it does this by unfolding as human history,
where the consciousness of universal, rational freedom is the driving force.
Hegel's metaphor for Spirit is a seed, which contains all it will become within
itself but which also needs to see those contents actualized in the world.
Hegel believed and argues,
that we do not perceive the world or anything in it directly and that all our
minds have access to is ideas of the world thus images, perceptions, concepts.
The only reality we know is a virtual reality. Hegel’s idealism differs from
Kant’s in two ways. First, Hegel believed that the ideas we have of the world
are social, which is to say that the ideas that we possess individually are
utterly shaped by the ideas that other people possess. Our minds have been
shaped by the thoughts of other people through the language we speak, the
traditions and mores of our society, and the cultural and religious
institutions of which we are a part.
The second way that
Hegel differs from Kant is that he sees Spirit as evolving according to the
same kind of pattern in which ideas might evolve in an argument, namely the
dialectic. First, there is a thesis, an idea or proposition about the world and how we relate to it.
Every thesis, or idea about the world, contains an inherent contradiction or
flaw, which thus gives rise to its antithesis, a proposition that
contradicts the thesis. Finally, the thesis and antithesis are reconciled into
a synthesis,
a new idea combining elements of both.
Essentially, Hegel
sees human societies evolving in the same way that an argument might evolve. An
entire society or culture begins with one idea about the world, which naturally
and irresistibly evolves into a succession of different ideas through a
dialectical pattern. Since Hegel believes that this succession is logical,
meaning that it could only happen one way, he thinks that we can figure out the
entire course of human history without recourse to archaeology or other
empirical data, but purely through logic.
Spirit does not exist
from the earliest moments of human history but is instead a modern phenomenon
toward which humanity had to evolve but human consciousness starts from a
position of trying to grasp objects through sensory inputs and moves on to more
sophisticated Spirit is the self-consciousness of the community, the whole of
which individuals are only a part. As the consciousness of spirit unfolds and
changes, so do the values and actions of the individual parts of which it is
made.
Ethical Life as the
Expression of an Age, Ethical life is a given
cultural expression of Spirit, the collective entity that transcends all individuals and
determines their beliefs and actions whether they are aware of it or not.
Ethical life reflects the fundamental interdependence among individuals in a
society and finds articulation in their shared customs and morals.
Hegel argues that the tendency in modern life
characterized by economic individualism and the Enlightenment idea of the
individual as a subject possessing various rights represents a movement away
from the recognition of essential social bonds. Before the Enlightenment, human
beings were generally considered in terms of how they fit into social
hierarchies and communal institutions, but following Enlightenment thinkers
such as Locke, Hobbes, Rousseau, and Kant, the individual on his own came to be
considered sacred. In the Philosophy
of Right, Hegel explains that the modern state is the institution that will
correct this imbalance in modern culture. Although economic and legal
individualism play a positive role in modern society,
Hegel foresees the need for institutions that
will affirm common bonds and ethical life while preserving individual freedom.
He believes, for example, that the state must regulate the economy and provide
for the poor in society and that there should be “corporative” institutions,
somewhat similar to modern trade unions, in which different occupational groups affirm a sense of social belonging and
a feeling of being connected to larger society.
Hegel argue that there are three methods of writing History and he
distinguishing these three methods or modes of doing history as, Original
History, Reflective History and Philosophical History,
Firstly,Hegel argue that, Original
history consists of an account of actions, events, and situations lived through
and witnessed by the historian. Other
primary sources are used, but as "ingredients
only",the account depends fundamentally on the historian's own
witnessing of the times. Hegel cites Thucydides and Herodotus as examples. He
also describes this type of recorded history as "history whose spirit (the
historian) shared in," and notes that the primary task of "original
history" is to create an internal, "mental representation" of
external events. Original history must deal instead with the "observed and
observable reality" of a people who are self aware and unique.
Further, original history cannot be of
great external scope, it is a limited viewpoint, a portrait of the time. The
original historian does not offer a great deal of theory about or reflection on
the events and situations he or she recounts--"he lives within the spirit
of the times and cannot as yet transcend them." For Hegel, the spirit in
which the original historian is writing is the same as the spirit of the times
he or she is writing about: "the spirit of the author and of the actions
he tells of, are one and the same."
Reflective History - This is the second historical method
Hegel mentions. Reflective history is written after the time covered in the
history has passed, and therefore it involves a remove at which the historian
can analyze and interpret the events he covers. Reflective history is divided
into four sub-methods: universal history, pragmatic, critical, and specialized.
Universal History - This is the first form of reflective
history that Hegel sets out. Universal history seeks to provide an account of
the whole history of a people, or even of the world. Unlike original history,
the spirit in which a universal history is written is not the spirit of the
times written about. Since the extremely broad scope of universal history
necessitates the intense compression of complex events into simple statements,
the primary factor in such histories is the "thought" of the
historian as he works to give a coherent, universal account.
Pragmatic History - Pragmatic history, the second type of
reflective history, involves an ideology or interpretive method on the part of
the historian, who uses historical events to back up a pointed argument. Hegel
disdains pragmatic histories that seek to provide "moral lessons”
Critical History - This third type of reflective history
seeks to re-interpret existing historical accounts. Critical history is a kind
of history of history, which tests the accuracy of given accounts and perhaps
poses alternative accounts. Hegel dislikes this kind of history, which
"extorts" new things to say from existing accounts. He points out
that this is a cheaper way to achieve "reality" in history, because
it puts subjective notions in place of facts and calls these notions reality.
specialized History - This final type of reflective history
focuses on one thread in history, such as "the history of art, of law, or
of religion." At the same time, it represents a transitional stage to
philosophic history because it takes a "universal viewpoint." The
very focus taken (e.g., the history of law) represents a choice on the part of
the historian to make a universal concept the guiding rationale for his or her
specific history. If the specialized history is good, the author will give an
accurate account of the fundamental "Idea" (the "inner guiding
soul") that guided the particular events and actions discussed.
Philosophic History - The focus of this third major category
of history is the larger process by which Spirit unfolds in the world as
history (this is, of course, Hegel's own historical method). Philosophic
history prioritizes thought before history, bringing pure philosophical ideas
to bear on events. The thoughts that organize the "raw material" of
historical events into philosophic history come first and can stand alone--they
are a priori. Thus, the philosophic historian studies both the
eternal Spirit (which is non-temporal) and the historical process which is its
unfolding (a process which is temporal).
Morality - Hegel uses the term "morality"
(in contrast to "ethics") to denote the subjective form of duty to
others (in contrast to a form of duty based on the universal principles of the
State). Philosophic history generally excludes consideration of morals,
ignoring the personal moral problems of world-historical individuals. The
reason for this exclusion is that subjective morality, like subjective will, is
essentially arbitrary unless it is linked to universal principles. True ethics
arise only with the State, which makes a people free through voluntary
adherence to common principles and laws. Some ancient cultures (Hegel mentions
Chinese, Indian, and Homeric civilizations) have moral codes but not ethics.
Universality - The term "universal" is
extremely wide-ranging in Hegel, but in general it denotes that which
transcends the subjective and the particular. The nature and essence of Spirit
in and of itself is universal, but universality is only one aspect of Spirit as
it unfolds in the world. The opposite aspect is particularity, and the division
between these two aspects is based on the division Spirit creates within itself
as it becomes self-conscious (which involves the knowing of itself as an object
rather than just a subject). The course of history is driven by the dialectic
(the back-and-forth) between the universal and particular aspects of Spirit.
These aspects are sometimes joined, when the State succeeds in unifying the
particular, subjective wills of its citizens with the universal principle that
is the common Spirit of the people. Universality, whether it is fully meshed
with the particularities of culture or not, must be present in a culture before
that culture can be considered a State (since the State is the practical
embodiment of a universal national principle). Until this happens, true
"history" has not begun for that culture. Universality is first
introduced in a culture by thought, which rejects traditional, unconsidered
ideas of duty in favor of universal, rational laws. Thus, human culture seeks
to know itself in a universal context, even as Spirit seeks to know itself as
an objective thing in the world.
Idea - "Idea" remains a somewhat
unclear concept, and is often used nearly interchangeably with
"Spirit." Hegel refers to Idea at one point as lying in "the
innermost pit of Spirit," and in general he uses the term in the context
of a summarized, effective form of the very loose concept of Spirit (almost as
a practical, active version of Spirit). The Idea is what directly informs the
universal principle of the State in its many forms, and when Hegel is
discussing Reason, he often expands the term to "rational Idea" to
imply that Reason is not only an abstract concept but also a driving force in
human history. The Idea is also referred to as something Spirit has, as
the thing it wants to realize in the world. This usage only points out the
extent to which Idea and Spirit overlap, since Hegel also says that Spirit only
seeks to realize itself.
State -
The State is the form abstract Spirit "takes in actuality," the
"material form" of the rational goal of Spirit. As such, the State is
a union between the Idea (the universal principle of rational freedom) and
human interests or passion (the particular, subjective wills of individuals).
The State arises as the embodiment of the Spirit of a given people, which in
turn represents one stage in the development of universal Spirit in the world.
Hegel is emphatic that the State does not limit freedom (as the "negative
freedom" or social contract model would have it), but only limits the
basest aspects of arbitrary subjective will ("caprice"). The
limitation of these elements does not check true freedom at all, and in fact
such limitation is requisite for any true freedom to exist. Because the State
provides the only possibility for universal rational freedom (which emphasizes
individual choice in adhering to universal laws), its emergence also marks the
beginning of history--no events have the proper historical import without the
legal context of the State, and so no people without a State are the concern of
history. It's also important to remember that the State refers to the
"ethical totality" of a people and their culture, not just to the
government.
Nature -
Hegel discusses nature primarily as an opposing term to the State and the
history whose material is the State. The course of nature throughout history is
essentially cyclical--nothing truly new ever emerges (i.e., there are no new
concepts or laws)--whereas history itself proceeds precisely as entirely new
concepts and contents are brought forth by Spirit. Nature does not truly
"develop" in the sense of progress toward perfection, though it does
"bring forth new forms" of the same essential content. Hegel
disparages the idea (promoted in part by Schlegel) of a "state of
nature," in which pre-historic man is supposed to have lived in a naive,
peaceful state with full knowledge of God. For Hegel, there is no such thing as
a "natural" State, since the State necessitates universal concepts
and culture. Human nature, without any self-conscious thought, is simply a
matter of the basest subjective will or caprice. As Spirit moves humanity away
from this state, it must struggle against its own subjective aspect to attain
the universal. Spirit also opposes nature in the sense that the aims of Spirit
can be temporarily frustrated or stymied by natural conditions--nature
"impinges" on history in this sense, but the only substance of
history is Spirit.
Dialectic - The dialectic is an important Hegelian
concept that is only used a few times in the Introduction. It
denotes a kind of progress-through-negation, in which Spirit destroys
realizations of itself in order to rise again in a new and more fully realized
form. This sense of dialectic is closely linked to the self-consciousness of
Spirit--in knowing itself (the universal) as its own opposite (the subjective
or particular), Spirit struggles against itself as it emerges in the world. The
dialectic therefore helps to explain why rational history progresses through
violent upheaval rather than through smooth transition.
Passion - Passion is Hegel's term for the
subjective will as it occupies an individual completely. Someone's passion is
their encompassing goal, the cause that defines them, and therefore a means to self-knowledge.
The ideal for any State is to realize the union of these subjective passions
with the universal principle on which the State is based.
World-Historical Individuals - This is Hegel's phrase for those
individuals who play a major role in world history--people like Caesar or
Napoleon. World-historical individuals benefit from the partial coincidence of
their own subjective passions with the universal will of Spirit as it is
expressed in the Spirit of the people. That people's Spirit is unconscious
until it is brought to consciousness by the world-historical individual; thus,
world-historical individuals serve to bring Spirit to a new stage of
self-consciousness and help to establish a new State. These individuals are
rarely (if ever) aware of universal Spirit itself, though they generally happen
to know what the "next step" in the spiritual life of their people
must be. They are also often morally dubious, a fact which Hegel claims lies
outside the scope of philosophic history (since such issues concern subjective
morality rather than universal ethical principles). Hegel therefore disparages
any "psychological" analysis of world- historical individuals, seeing
such analyses as little more than envious and spiteful musings.
Original history is like that of Herodotus and Thucydides, these are
almost contemporaneous writings limited to deeds, events and states of society
which they had before their very eyes and whose culture they shared.
Reflective history is written at some
temporal distance from the events or history considered. However, for Hegel,
this form of history has a tendency to impose the cultural prejudices and ideas
of the historians' era upon the past history over which the historian reflects.
Philosophical history for Hegel, is
the true way. Hegel maintains that with philosophical history the historian
must bracket his own preconceptions and go and find the overall sense and the
driving ideas out of the very matter of the history considered
REFERENCE
·
Avineri,
Shlomo, 1972, Hegel's Theory of the Modern State, Cambridge:
Cambridge.
University Press.
·
Beiser,
Frederick C., 2002, German Idealism: The Struggle against Subjectivism,
Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard
University Press.
·
Beiser,
Frederick C. (ed.), 2008, The Cambridge Companion to Hegel and
Nineteenth-
Century
Philosophy, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
·
Brandom,
Robert B., 2009, Reason in Philosophy: Animating Ideas, Cambridge,
Mass.:
Harvard
University Press.
·
Bristow,
William F. 2007, Hegel and the Transformation of Philosophical Critique,
Oxford:
Oxford
University Press.
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Deligiorgi,
Katerina (ed.), 2006, Hegel: New Directions, Chesham: Acumen.
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Ferrarin,
Alfredo, 2001, Hegel and Aristotle, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
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Forster,
Michael N., 1989, Hegel and Skepticism, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press.
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Gadamer,
Hans-Georg, 1976, Hegel's Dialectic: Five Hermeneutical Studies, P.
Christopher
Smith
(trans.), New Haven: Yale University Press.
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